good news from NPTEL

hi friends good news  from NPTEL: National Programme on technology enhanced learning 
NPTEL provides E-learning through online Web and Video courses in Engineering, Science and humanities streams. The mission of NPTEL is to enhance the quality of Engineering education in the country by providing free online courseware. 
organised by these universities


i think this news every body know but

now NPTEL going to provide a ONLINE CERTIFICATION in various course study's.

for this purpose you peoples need to register to particular course at right time 

site link: http://nptel.ac.in/

70% of America’s new energy came from wind and solar

Renewable Dominate New US Electrical Generating Capacity

According to the latest “Energy Infrastructure Update” report from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s (FERC) Office of Energy Projects, wind energy and solar power combined provided over 70 percent (71.82%) of the 873 megawatts (MW) of new U.S. electrical generating capacity placed into service in November 2014.

Specifically, three wind farms came on line last month, accounting for 333-MW of new generation in service. These included Stella Wind Farm’s 182-MW Panhandle Wind Farm Phase II expansion in Texas and the 150-MW Origin Wind Energy project in Oklahoma. 

New wind generating capacity this year thus far has more than doubled that for the same period in 2013 (2,525-MW vs. 1,112-MW).

In addition, 14 new “units” of solar came on line for a total of 294-MW of capacity, led by MidAmerican Renewables LLC’s 250-MW Topaz Solar Farms expansion in California.

Just a single new unit of natural gas came on-line last month (Wisconsin Electric Power Co’s 140-MW Valley Power Plant Unit 1 Repowering Project) as well as the first and only coal plant to come into service so far in 2014 (Great River Energy’s 106-MW lignite-fueled Spiritwood Station project in North Dakota).

So, for the ninth time in the past eleven months, renewable energy sources (i.e., biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, wind) accounted for the majority of new U.S. electrical generation brought into service. Natural gas took the lead in the other two months (April and August).

Of the 10,926-MW of new generating capacity from all sources installed since January 1, 2014, 39 units of wind accounted for 2,525-MW (23.11%), followed by 235 units of solar – 2,203-MW (20.16%), 49 units of biomass – 282-MW (2.58%), 7 units of hydropower – 141-MW (1.29%), and 5 units of geothermal – 32-MW (0.29%). In total, renewables have provided 47.43% of new U.S. electrical generating capacity thus far in 2014.

The balance came from 46 units of natural gas – 5,513-MW (50.46%), 1 unit of coal – 106-MW(0.97%), 1 unit of nuclear – 71-MW (0.65%), 15 units of oil – 47-MW (0.43%), and 6 units of “other” – 7-MW (0.06%). Thus, new capacity from renewable energy sources in 2014 is 49 times that from coal, 73 times that from nuclear, and 110 times that from oil.

Renewable energy sources now account for 16.44% of total installed operating generating capacity in the U.S.: water – 8.43%, wind – 5.42%, biomass – 1.38%, solar – 0.88%, and geothermal steam – 0.33%. Renewable energy capacity is now greater than that of nuclear (9.22%) and oil (3.97%) combined.

Why the future for phosphates lies in recycling

Why the future for phosphates lies in recycling

Phosphorus is the eleventh most common element on Earth, essential to all living organisms. In particular, alongside nitrogen, it is one of the main plant nutrients. In nature, phosphorus always occurs combined with oxygen and other elements, forming phosphates.

In the past, the elements necessary for plant and animal growth were recycled in primitive agricultural communities. Crops were consumed by animals and man close to their place of production. The resulting animal and human manures, as well as crop wastes, were then applied to cultivated land, returning the nutrients to the soil.»

The need to restore the phosphate cycle

Phosphorus input into natural systems comes only from the weathering of certain rocks and is comparatively scarce. Phosphorus is therefore easily depleted in soils and the sustainability of traditional agriculture depended on respecting the phosphorus cycle.   The growth of cities and the intensification of farming have broken this nutrient cycle. Human wastes (containing the nutrients) are concentrated in urban sewage and, where this sewage is treated, various factors mitigate against spreading of the resulting sludges on agricultural land. These factors include geographical concentration of sludge production (resulting in long transport to farmland, and therefore costs) and  contamination of sludges with physical and chemical pollutants present in urban waste waters. Similar problems apply to animal wastes in the case of concentrated, intensive livestock production (pigs, chickens ...). In order to obtain high crop yields and to produce enough food for growing world populations, intensive modern agriculture requires large quantities of nutrients in a form readily available to plants : mineral fertilisers.   Phosphate mine at Khouribga, Morocco

Around 80% of phosphates produced by the worlds industry today are used in fertilisers, with a further 5% being used to supplement animal feeds. These phosphates are manufactured from phosphate-containing rock mined from deposits in several countries. Around 140 million tonnes of phosphate rock are extracted each year across the world. Traditional P-Cycle: in the past phosphorus was recycled back to the land by local agriculture The phosphorus cycle has thus largely been replaced by a linear throughput system: phosphates are extracted from a non-renewable resource (phosphate rock), pass through crops, animals and man, and end up either in landfill (of raw or incinerated sewage sludge) or in rivers and the sea (if sewage or animal wastes are not adequately treated). Comparatively little is restored to agricultural land. Phosphates from fertilisers and manure may also build up in agricultural soil, in some circumstances towards or beyond saturation levels. Part of the applied phosphates may tend to run off into surface water rather than being retained in the soil and crops.

Modern society's throughput P-system: consumption of a non-renewable resource

why renewable s???????? small example1

1.Renewable Energy Resources Versus Fossil Fuels

The way we use energy today comes from knowledge that has it's foundations in the past century and before. Great men like Newton and Philips have set the path for us today to make proper use of energy. The sources which we use for our energy demand are known as non-renewable energy resources. These sources will be discussed here in the article.

Definition of Non-Renewable Energy Resources

The name really explains it very well. Non-renewable energy resources are natural resources that cannot be recycled or re-grown. These natural resources are fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas. It also includes mined resources such as the elements used in the production of electricity (uranium and plutonium, for instance). These resources replenish itself in a quicker rate.

Fossil fuels are very versatile. One of their functions is to generate electricity. In order to generate electricity, fossil fuels are burned through the process of combustion. The energy produced from the combustion process is used to power a turbine. The turbine is responsible for the conversion of energy produced from combusted fossil fuels into electricity.

Coal

Coal is one the most used fossil fuels. It is consider too be the most important energy source to produce electricity. The U.S. produces 50% of its energy supply through the combustion of coal. The coal itself is a brownish-black sedimentary rock which contains carbon and other assorted elements. It is extracted from the ground through underground mining or open-pit mining.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is also used to produce electricity. The electricity is produced through steam turbines and gas turbines. Because the gas contains methane the combustion emits less harmful gasses that have a negative effect on global warming. Thus natural gasses are better for the environment compared to petroleum and coal.

There is also another use for it and that is as fuel for cars. It is much cheaper that gasoline and produces less harmful gasses. The disadvantage of running your car on natural gas is that you need more fuel compared to gasoline and the car needs more maintenance. In countries like Argentina, Brazil, Pakistan, Italy, The Netherlands and India it is used as a fuel for cars.

Crude oil

This fuel is the most talk about for the past year(s). The prices for crude oil have gone through the roof and will be rising even more. The demand is increasing while there is less crude oil available. The term black gold is now more applicable than ever before.

The oil itself is very think in consistency and has a dark brown or greenish colour characteristic. It is a complex mixture of different hydrocarbons.

Crude oil or petroleum has various uses. It can be used as fuel or cars and different industrial machines. It is also used as a raw material for products like plastics, solvents, fertilizers and pesticides.

Although the need for crude oil is high and the demand is rising the available crude oil is decreasing. That leaves us no other option than to look for alternatives.

Non-renewable energy plays a very important role in our daily lives. Non-renewable energy will be needed today and in the future. Because this energy source cannot be recycled or re-grown the reserves are limited. The consequences of the shortages of fossil fuels are experienced today and tomorrow. We will need to use these fossil fuels wisely and will need to shift our focus to other renewable energy source. These are the sources that we need to focus on today and years to come.

Source: http://www.articlebase.com

science projects of childrens

What makes certain materials "glow" under a black light? This experiment will tell you why.

Have you ever wondered what makes certain things glow under black lights?
For this experiment you will need:
• a black light
• petroleum jelly
• a piece of paper
First we’ll use the petroleum jelly as a kind of invisible ink. Dip your finger into the jelly, then use your finger to write a message on the piece of paper. Use more jelly if you need to – but this probably isn’t the time to write a long speech! When you’re finished, wipe any remaining jelly off your finger. Have the black light ready, then turn off the room lights and turn on the black light.
Can you see the message? Why is something that you couldn’t see in room light now visible when you can’t see any light?
First, let’s talk about the light. The reason black lights are called "black lights" is because they give off very little light that our eyes can see. Visible light contains a spectrum of colors ranging from red, through orange, yellow, green, and blue, to violet or purple. Beyond violet light in the spectrum is ultraviolet light, which our eyes cannot detect.
You may have heard of ultraviolet light if you know about sunburn. Sunburn is caused by a type of ultraviolet light, which scientists call “ultraviolet B” (UV-B). UV-B is higher in energy than the light from black lights, which is called “ultraviolet A” (UV-A). Black lights will not give you a sunburn.
If we can't see ultraviolet light, why does the petroleum jelly glow under the black light?
Most of the time when we look at an object, we see light reflected from the surface of the object. But with a black light, there isn't much visible light, so simple reflection of light doesn't account for how bright the jelly glows. Petroleum jelly contains substances called phosphors. A phosphor absorbs radiation and emits it as visible light. So the phosphors in the jelly are absorbing the invisible ultraviolet radiation from the black light and emitting visible light.
Can you find anything else in your home that glows under black light?
One thing that usually glows brightly under black lights is a white shirt. Most laundry detergents contain “bluing agents” that are advertised as making the whites “whiter.” In fact, these agents are phosphors that respond to the UV-A radiation in normal light. The black light emphasizes their presence.
Another example of phosphors can be found on new $20 bills. As part of the government’s program to make currency harder to counterfeit, $20 bills issued since October, 2003, have a “security thread” that glows under ultraviolet light. The security thread is being introduced into $50 and $100 bills as well.
Glowing Hands
Can you think of a way to make your hands glow in the dark?
For this experiment you will need:
• a black light
• petroleum jelly
• latex gloves if you don't want to get your hands messy (caution: some people are allergic to latex gloves!)
• someone to turn on the black light for you.
If you have Latex gloves, put them on your hands. Reach into the jar of petroleum jelly and scoop out enough jelly to cover both hands. Rub the jelly well over both hands, and then ask someone to turn off the lights in the room, and to turn on the black light. Hold your hand under the black light.
What do you see? Can you think of a way you could use this trick when telling ghost stories at night?

What is the easiest way to pop a balloon? With a needle of course. Is there a way to put a needle into a balloon without popping it?

Have you ever seen someone pop a balloon with a needle? Is it possible to stick a needle through a balloon without popping it?
You will need the following materials:
• balloons
• long wooden or metal skewers
• petroleum jelly
• a sharp pin
• cellophane tape
Blow up a balloon – not too full – and tie the opening shut. Dip the tip of a skewer in Vaseline and spread the Vaseline along the entire length of the skewer. If you are careful, you should be able to push the skewer all the way through the balloon without popping it. Insert the skewer with a gentle twisting motion into the end of the balloon opposite the knot. Continue pushing and twisting the skewer until the tip emerges from the other end, near the knot. Why doesn't the balloon pop?
Now try to stick the skewer into the side of the balloon.What happens?
The rubber in the balloon consists of many long molecules that are linked together. It's similar to the way all of the noodles in a plate of spaghetti stick together. These long molecules are called polymers; when molecules of a polymer are chemically attached to each other, it is called cross-linking. These links hold the polymer molecules together and allow them to stretch…up to a point. When the force or tension pulling on the cross-links is too great, they will break, and the polymer will pull apart.
Look at the rubber near the ends of the balloon where you first inserted the skewer. Does it look lighter or darker than the rubber in the rest of the balloon?
The rubber at the ends of the balloon is stretched out less than in the middle of the balloon. Therefore, there is less force pulling on it. This allows the tip of the skewer to break some polymer cross-links, push aside the molecules of rubber, and slide into the balloon. However, enough cross-links remain so that the balloon holds together.

In the side of the balloon, there are fewer polymer molecules. When you push the tip of the skewer through the rubber in the side of the balloon and the skewer breaks a few of the cross-links, the tension on the remaining cross-links is too great, and the balloon pops.
Do you think there is a way to stick a sharp pin through the side of a balloon without popping it?
Put a small piece of cellophane tape on the side of the balloon and press it down well. Now take the pin and press it through the tape and into the balloon. Does the balloon pop?
The tape sticks to the rubber in the balloon and will not allow the rubber to stretch to the breaking point when the pin pierces the balloon. In other words, the tape reinforces the cross links, and the balloon stays together

Static electricity can be a problem whenever the humidity is low. In this experiment you will use static electricity to "bend" water.

Static electricity can be a problem whenever the humidity is low. It causes shocks and makes dust stick to surfaces, and it can literally make your hair stand on end. In this experiment, you will see that it also can move things around.
For this experiment you will need:

• a nylon comb
• a water faucet

Adjust the faucet to produce a small stream of water. The stream should be about 1.5 millimeters (1/16 inch) in diameter.
Run the comb through your hair several times. Slowly bring the teeth of the comb near the stream of water, about 8 to 10 centimeters (3 or 4 inches) below the faucet. When the teeth of the comb are about an inch or less away from the stream, the stream will bend toward the comb.
Move the comb closer to the stream. How does the distance between the stream and the comb affect how much the stream bends?
Run the comb through your hair several more times. Does the comb bend the stream more now?
Change the size of the stream by adjusting the faucet. Does the size of the stream affect how much the stream bends?
If you have other combs, you can try these to see if some bend the stream more than others.
Static electricity is the accumulation of an electrical charge in an object. The electrical charge develops when two objects are rubbed against one another. When the objects are rubbed together, some electrons (charged components of atoms) jump from one object to the other. The object that loses the electrons becomes positively charged, while the object that they jump to becomes negatively charged. The nature of the objects has a large effect on how many electrons move. This determines how large an electrical charge accumulates in the objects. Hair and nylon are particularly good at acquiring charge when they are rubbed together.
A charged object attract small particles, such as dust. The charge in the object causes a complementary charge to develop in something close to it. The complementary charge is attracted to the charged object. If the complementary charge forms on something tiny, such as dust particles, these tiny particles move to the charged object. This is why your television screen becomes dusty faster than the television cabinet. When a television operates, electrons fly from the back to the screen. These electrons cause the screen to become charged. The charge on the screen attracts dust.
The comb attracts the stream of water in the same way. The charge on the comb attracts the molecules of water in the stream. Because the molecules in the stream can be moved easily, the stream bends toward the comb.
When you comb your hair with a nylon comb, both the comb and your hair become charged. The comb and your hair acquire opposite charges. Because the individual hairs acquire the same charge, they repel each other. Perhaps you noticed that after running the nylon comb through your hair, the hairs on your head stood on end. This is a result of your hairs repelling each other because they are charged.
Static electricity is more of a problem when humidity is low. When humidity is high, most surfaces are coated with a thin film of water. When objects coated by a film of water are rubbed together, the water prevents electrons from jumping between the objects.

For additional information, see CHEMICAL DEMONSTRATIONS: A Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Volume 3, by Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, The University of Wisconsin Press, 2537 Daniels Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53704.

text book link: https://www.mediafire.com/?hdnsds3d5ldplps

Famous Scientist Facts

Famous Scientist Facts

The world we live in today would no doubt be a different place if it weren't for the amazing discoveries produced by this list of famous scientists. Their ideas, research, experiments, publications and determination are an inspiration to those that follow in their footsteps. Covering a broad range of scientific fields such as biology, physics, astronomy and chemistry, these men and women have pushed the world of science forward, allowing the human race to answer seemingly impossible questions while at the same time opening the door to new fields of research and discovery. Follow the links and read more about your favorite inventors, chemists, biologists and physicists.

1.Albert Einstein Facts

Albert Einstein is perhaps the most famous scientist of all time. Both his image and brilliant work on theoretical physics live on today and he serves as an inspiration to young scientists around the world.

Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about Albert Einstein.

• Albert Einstein was born on the 14th of March 1879 and died on the 18th of April 1955.
• Born in Germany to a Jewish family, Einstein made many contributions to the field of theoretical physics.
• Even when very young, Einstein showed great ability in both math’s and science. He was naturally curious and had a brilliant analytical mind.
• Einstein worked in a patent office evaluating patents for electromagnetic devices not long after he graduated.
• He produced perhaps one of the most famous equations ever: E = mc² (energy equals mass multiplied by the speed of light squared).
• He is also well known for his theory of relativity. Special relativity being introduced in his 1905 paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” before Einstein developed the theory of general relativity between the years of 1907 and 1915.
• Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on theoretical physics.
• He worked on many other influential theories and projects including: the deflection of light by gravity, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, Brownian motion, an explanation for capillary action and much more.
• Famous Albert Einstein quotes include: "Whether you can observe a thing or not depends on the theory which you use. It is the theory which decides what can be observed."
• "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music.... I do know that I get most joy in life out of my violin."
• "Physical concepts are free creations of the human mind, and are not, however it may seem, uniquely determined by the external world."
• "I am enough of an artist to draw freely upon my imagination. Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world."

2.Galileo Facts

Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who helped open the eyes of the world to a new way of thinking about the workings of our solar system and astronomy in general.

Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about Galileo.

• Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy, on the 15th of February 1564, he died on the 8th of January 1642.
• Galileo was a ground breaking astronomer, physicist, mathematician, philosopher and inventor. Among his inventions were telescopes, a compass and a thermometer.
• Galileo enrolled to do a medical degree at the University of Pisa but never finished, instead choosing to study mathematics.
• Galileo built on the work of others to create a telescope with around 3x magnification, he later improved on this to make telescopes with around 30x magnification.
• With these telescopes, Galileo was able to observe the skies in ways previously not achieved. In 1610 he made observations of 4 objects surrounding Jupiter that behaved unlike stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s four largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, Europa and Ganymede. They were later renamed the Galilean satellites in honor of Galileo himself.
• The discovery of these moons was not supported by the scientific principles of the time and Galileo had trouble convincing some people that he had indeed discovered such objects. This was similar to other ideas put forward by Galileo that were very controversial at the time.
• The Geocentric model of the universe which was embraced by earlier astronomers had the Earth at the center of the universe with other objects moving around it. Work by Galileo, Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler helped to supercede this theory with the more accurate heliocentric model. Such a view of the universe differed strongly with the beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time and Galileo was forced to withdraw many of his ideas and even spent the final years of his life under house arrest.
• Galileo refused to believe Kepler’s theory that the moon caused the tides, instead believing it was due to the nature of the Earth’s rotation (helping prove that even the smartest people can make mistakes).
• Famous Galileo quotes include: “In questions of science the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.”
• “See now the power of truth; the same experiment which at first glance seemed to show one thing, when more carefully examined, assures us of the contrary.”
• “Alas! Your dear friend and servant Galileo has been for the last month hopelessly blind; so that this heaven, this earth, this universe, which I by my marvelous discoveries and clear demonstrations had enlarged a hundred thousand times beyond the belief of the wise men of bygone ages, henceforward for me is shrunk into such a small space as is filled by my own bodily sensations.”

3.Johannes Kepler Facts

Johannes Kepler helped lead a scientific revolution in the 17th century with his amazing work in the field of astronomy. Among his many contributions were the three laws of planetary motion.

Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about Johannes Kepler.

• Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician who lived from December the 27th 1571 to November the 15th 1630.
• Kepler played a key role in the scientific revolution that occurred in the 17th century, contributing a number of scientific breakthroughs including his famous laws of planetary motion.
• The three laws of planetary motion devised by Kepler are:
  
  1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
  2. A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
  3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
• Kepler was interested in astronomy from an early age, this interest was further piqued when he witnessed both a comet in 1577 as well as a lunar eclipse in 1580.
• Kepler attended the University of Tübingen where he studied philosophy, excelled in mathematics, further developed his remarkable astronomy skills and even found time to create horoscopes for other students.
• Kepler achieved much of his work around the same time as another famous astronomer, Galileo Galilei. The two often had disagreeing opinions but their concurrent work helped spur physics, philosophy and astronomy forward rapidly to a new level of understanding.
• Kepler’s work on planetary motion helped Isaac Newton later devise his own theory of universal gravitation.
• Some of Kepler’s famous work includes: Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos -1596), Astronomia nova (New Astronomy - 1609), Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds - 1619) and Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy - published between 1618 and 1621).
• NASA honored Kepler by naming a mission after him. Launched on March 6 2009, the Kepler Mission involves a high-tech space telescope that will search for other Earth-like planets.
• Famous Johannes Kepler quotes include: “Nature uses as little as possible of anything.”
• “I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses.”
• “I used to measure the heavens, now I measure the shadows of Earth.”
• “Geometry has two great treasures; one is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a measure of gold; the second we may name a precious jewel.”

4.Isaac Newton Facts

Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential scientists of all time. He came up with numerous theories and contributed ideas to many different fields including physics, mathematics and philosophy.

Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about Isaac Newton.

• Born in England, Isaac Newton was a highly influential physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, alchemist and theologian.
• In 1687, Newton published Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, what is widely regarded to be one of the important books in the history of science. In it he describes universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, concepts that remained at the forefront of science for centuries after.
• Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass, the earth and moon for example.
• Newton’s three laws of motion relate the forces acting on a body to its motion. The first is the law of inertia, it states that ‘every object in motion will stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force’. The second is commonly stated as ‘force equals mass times acceleration’, or F = ma. The third and final law is commonly known as ‘to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
• Other significant work by Newton includes the principles of conservation related to momentum and angular momentum, the refraction of light, an empirical law of cooling, the building of the first practical telescope and much more.
• Newton moved to London in 1696 and took up a role as the Warden of the Royal Mint, overseeing the production of the Pound Sterling.
• Newton was known to have said that his work on formulating a theory of gravitation was inspired by watching an apple fall from a tree. A story well publicized to this very day.
• Famous Isaac Newton quotes include: "Plato is my friend - Aristotle is my friend - but my greatest friend is truth."
• "If I have seen further it is only by standing on the shoulders of Giants."
• "I can calculate the motions of the heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people."
• "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."
• "Truth is ever to be found in simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things."

5.Michael Faraday Facts

Well regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time, Michael Faraday was a British physicist and chemist whose combined expertise led to the development of many of today’s common technologies.

Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about Michael Faraday.

• Michael Faraday was born in England on the 22nd of September 1791 and died on the 25th of August 1867.
• His work on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the foundation for many areas of science. He formed the basis of the electromagnetic field concept in physics, discovered the laws of electrolysis, invented electromagnetic rotary devices that were vital in the creation of electric motors and played a key role in the development of electricity for use in technology.
• Not limited to physics and electromagnetism, Faraday also invented a simple Bunsen burner, coined terms such as electrode, cathode, anode and ion, discovered benzene and investigated the nature of chlorine.
• Faraday had only a basic education in a family that was not well off. He had only a minimal understanding of technical mathematical concepts but was still able to produce some of the most important scientific concepts in history and did so in a language that was clear and easily understood.
• Faraday was a man of honor who was strong in his convictions. He rejected both a knighthood and an offer to become President of the Royal Society as well turning down a burial in Westminster Abbey. He also refused to assist the British government in the production of chemical weapons for use in war.
• Famous Michael Faraday quotes include: “But still try, for who knows what is possible”
• “Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws of nature”
• “There is no more open door by which you can enter into the study of natural philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle”
• “I was at first almost frightened when I saw such mathematical force made to bear upon the subject, and then wondered to see that the subject stood it so well.”

6.Nikola Tesla Facts

Nikola Tesla was a forward-thinking Serbian-American scientist and inventor who made important contributions to physics and engineering. He is best known for his work with electricity, including the design of alternating current (AC) electricity. He also had a flair for the dramatic, creating elaborate experiments and showcasing his work with spectacular demonstrations. Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about the scientist Nikola Tesla.

• Tesla was born to Serbian parents on the 10th of July, 1856 in the village of Smiljan, part of the Austrian Empire (now Croatia). He died on the 7th of January, 1947 in room 3327 of the New Yorker Hotel.
• After an eventful upbringing and education, Tesla moved to France in 1882 where he worked on electrical equipment at the Continental Edison Company.
• He immigrated to the USA in 1884 where he worked for Thomas Edison before resigning a year later to work on his own projects.
• Tesla went on to patent many of his inventions, including his AC induction motor and transformer which he licensed to George Westinghouse.
• Tesla, Westinghouse and Edison were at the heart of the so called ‘war of the currents’ between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) as a means of distributing electrical power.
• Tesla was known for high voltage experiments and demonstrations, including displays of his famous Tesla Coil which produces high voltage, low current electricity.
• In 1891, Tesla became a citizen of the United States.
• Tesla was the vice president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers between 1892 and 1894.
• Tesla experimented with X-rays and radio waves, developing important ideas and even making a few accidental discoveries thanks to his extravagant experiments.
• Tesla moved his lab to Colorado Springs in 1899 where he proved the Earth was a conductor, produced artificial lightning and became well known to his neighbors with ambitious electrical experiments that caused booming thunder, rogue sparks and the occasional power outage.
• Tesla later worked on the Wardenclyffe Tower (or Tesla Tower), a wireless transmission tower that was never completed.
• Tesla moved to the New Yorker Hotel in 1934 where he continued his research and spent the remaining years of his life before dying in 1943 at the age of 86.
• Famous Nikola Tesla quotes include: “Nature may reach the same result in many ways.”
• “Money does not represent such a value as men have placed upon it. All my money has been invested into experiments with which I have made new discoveries enabling mankind to have a little easier life.”
• “The scientific man does not aim at an immediate result. He does not expect that his advanced ideas will be readily taken up. His work is like that of the planter - for the future. His duty is to lay the foundation for those who are to come, and point the way. He lives and labors and hopes.”
• “Of all things I liked books best.”

7.Alexander Graham Bell Facts

Learn about the man credited with the invention of the first practical telephone with our Alexander Graham Bell facts for kids. Find out about his life growing up in Scotland, his move to Canada, his study of sound and his many experiments and inventions. Read on and enjoy our range of interesting facts and information related to Alexander Graham Bell.

• Alexander Graham Bell was an influential scientist, engineer and inventor.
• He was born on March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. He died on August 2, 1922 at the age of 75.
• He is widely credited with the invention of the first practical telephone.
• Bell’s mother and wife were both deaf, this had a major influence on his work.
• He didn’t have the middle name “Graham” until he turned 11 when his father gave it to him as a birthday present. He’d earlier asked to have a middle name like his two brothers.
• Bell became an excellent piano player at a young age.
• When he was 23, Bell and his parents moved to Canada.
• Bell studied the human voice and worked with various schools for the deaf.
• Bell experimented with sound, working with devices such as a ‘harmonic telegraph’ (used to send multiple messages over a single wire) and a ‘phonautograph’ (used to record sound).
• He worked on acoustic telegraphy with his assistant, an electrical designer named Thomas Watson.
• On February 14, 1876, Bell and an American electrical engineer named Elisha Gray both filed patents with the U.S. Patent Office covering the transmission of sounds telegraphically. There is debate about who got there first but the patent was awarded to Bell. A few days later he succeeded in getting his telephone to work using elements similar to those of Gray’s water transmitter.
• Bell’s first words with the working telephone were spoken to his assistant Watson and were along the lines of “Mr Watson, come here. I want to see you.”
• Bell improved on the design and by 1886 more than 150000 people owned telephones in the United States.
• Bell also had a strong interest in other scientific fields, conducting medical research, searching for alternative fuel sources, experimenting with metal detectors, developing hydrofoil watercraft and much more.
• Famous Alexander Graham Bell quotes include: "Before anything else, preparation is the key to success."
• "A man, as a general rule, owes very little to what he is born with - a man is what he makes of himself."
• "The day will come when the man at the telephone will be able to see the distant person to whom he is speaking."
• "The inventor looks upon the world and is not contented with things as they are. He wants to improve whatever he sees, he wants to benefit the world; he is haunted by an idea. The spirit of invention possesses him, seeking materialization."

8.James Maxwell Facts

James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician famous for bringing together a large number of equations, experiments and observations related to electricity and magnetism into a consistent electromagnetic theory. Read on for interesting facts, quotes and information about the scientist James Maxwell.

• James Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on the 13th of June 1831 and died on the 5th of November 1879.
• He produced a set of equations, known as ‘Maxwell’s Equations’ that explain the properties of magnetic and electric fields and help show that light is an electromagnetic wave.
• His impressive work was described in papers such as ‘On Physical Lines of Force’, ‘A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field’ and ‘A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism’.
• Maxwell’s contributions played an important role in the advances made in 20th century physics and his work was often admired by fellow physicist Albert Einstein.
• Maxwell attended Edinburgh University from 1847 to 1850. He also spent a large amount of time at his home studying and undertaking various experiments.
• After his time at Edinburgh University, Maxwell moved on to Cambridge University where he remained from 1850 to 1856. He further developed his mathematical skills and other ideas before accepting a professorship at Aberdeen University in 1856.
• Maxwell was awarded a prize in1859 for his essay ‘On the Stability of Saturn's Rings’, which described the nature of Saturn’s rings as numerous small particles rather than a solid or fluid ring.
• A large amount of Maxwell’s research was based on the work of Michael Faraday, and although Maxwell was 40 years younger, the two meet each other on many occasions.
• Maxwell also made numerous contributions in the fields of color analysis, kinetic theory and thermodynamics. He is even attributed with creating the first true color photograph.
• Famous James Maxwell quotes include: “Aye, I suppose I could stay up that late.” – Said after being informed of a compulsory 6 a.m. church service at Cambridge University.
• “In every branch of knowledge the progress is proportional to the amount of facts on which to build, and therefore to the facility of obtaining data.”

Chemistry Facts

Chemistry Facts

Read some fun chemistry facts for kids and find out more about atoms, elements, gases, liquids, solids, experiments, cool chemicals and much more. Children will love the did you know facts and other interesting chemistry information that will help them learn a thing or two along the way.

• Hydrogen is the first element on the periodic table. It has an atomic number of 1. It is highly flammable and is the most common element found in our universe.

• Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 kelvin (−196 °C, −321 °F).
• Around 1% of the sun’s mass is oxygen.
• Helium is lighter than the air around us so it floats, that's why it is perfect for the balloons you get at parties.
• Carbon comes in a number of different forms (allotropes), these include diamond, graphite and impure forms such as coal.
• Under normal conditions, oil and water do not mix. More oil facts.
• Although it is still debated, it is largely recognized that the word 'chemistry' comes from an Egyptian word meaning 'earth'.
• The use of various forms of chemistry is believed to go back as long ago as the Ancient Egyptians. By 1000 BC civilizations were using more complex forms of chemistry such as using plants for medicine, extracting metal from ores, fermenting wine and making cosmetics.

• Things invisible to the human eye can often be seen under UV light, which comes in handy for both scientists and detectives.

• Humans breathe out carbon dioxide (CO₂). Using energy from sunlight, plantsconvert carbon dioxide into food during a process called photosynthesis.

• Chemical reactions occur all the time, including through everyday activities such as cooking. Try adding an acid such as vinegar to a base such as baking soda and see what happens!

• Above 4 °C, water expands when heated and contracts when cooled. But between 4 °C and 0 °C it does the opposite, contracting when heated and expanding when cooled. Stronger hydrogen and oxygen bonds are formed as the water crystallizes into ice. By the time it's frozen it takes up around 9% more space.
• Often formed under intense pressure over time, a crystal is made up of molecules or atoms that are repeated in a three dimensional repeating pattern. Quartz is a well known example of a crystal.

• Athletes at the Olympic Games have to be careful how much coffee they drink. The caffeine in coffee is a banned substance because it can enhance performance. One or two cups are fine but they can go over the limit with more than five. (update - as of 2004 caffeine has been taken back off the WADA banned list but its use will be closely monitored to prevent future abuse by athletes.)

Vehicle Facts for Kids

Vehicle Facts for Kids

Check out our fun vehicle facts for kids featuring a wide range of interesting transport related trivia and information.

Read about different types of boats, how helicopters work, what submarines are used for, how fast modern trains can move, what keeps hot air balloons in the air, the history of cars, how bicycles transfer energy, the different parts that make up an airplane and much more.

1.Airplane Facts for Kids

Check out our fun airplane facts for kids and enjoy learning about different aircraft.

Find information on commercial planes, drones, wings, engines, the history of flight and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to airplanes.

• Airplanes are fixed-wing aircraft that are propelled through the air by engines.
• They are used for transportation, recreation, research and military purposes.
• Engines provide the thrust needed to move a plane forward, overcoming drag and allowing the wings to create lift.
• Aircraft wings feature a shape called an airfoil which is designed to create lift as the plane moves through the air.
• The long, thin body of an aircraft is typically called the fuselage.
• Pilots usually control the plane from a cockpit located at the front of the fuselage.
• Some aircraft (usually military or experimental) are capable of supersonic flight (breaking the sound barrier) by traveling at speeds faster than sound (1235kph, 768mph).
• There have only been two commercial aircraft capable of supersonic transport, the most well known of these was the Concorde which flew between major cities such as London, New York and Paris until 2003.
• It took Concorde just three and a half hours to travel from New York to Paris while it took other commercial aircraft around eight hours.
• Unmanned aircraft controlled remotely or by computers are known as drones.
• American aviation pioneers Orville and Wilbur Wright (The Wright Brothers), are believed to be have created the first successful airplane.
• Learn more about the principles of flying with our flight facts for kids.

2.Boat Facts for Kids

Check out our fun boat facts for kids and enjoy learning about various ships and watercraft.

Find information on sailboats, luxury yachts, the America’s Cup, nautical terms and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to boats.

• Large watercraft are generally called ships.
• Smaller watercraft are generally called boats.
• They are designed to float on water, whether it be in lakes, rivers or seas.
• Boats and ships serve a variety of purposes including transport, recreation, fishing, sporting competition and military operations.
• Some boats are human powered, including kayaks, canoes and gondolas.
• Sailboats are propelled by wind and sails.
• The tall upright post on a sailboat is called a mast.
• Motorboats are propelled by engines.
• Cargo ships carry goods between ports around the world.
• The hull is the main body of a boat or ship.
• Starboard and port are nautical terms which describe the right (starboard) and left (port) sides when facing the the front (bow) of a ship or boat.
• The rear part of a ship or boat is called the stern.
• The America’s Cup is awarded to the winner of a series of races between sailing yachts. Originally awarded in 1851, it is the oldest international sporting trophy in the world.
• Some luxury yachts (also called superyachts or megayachts) are over 70 metres (230 feet) in length with the longest examples reaching over 150 metres (492 feet).
• Learn about submarines and the Titanic.

3.Helicopter Facts for Kids

Check out our fun helicopter facts for kids and enjoy learning about what they do and how they work. Find information on their variety of uses, how rotors work, hovering, fastest speeds, their limitations and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to helicopters.

• Helicopters are agile aircraft capable of taking off and landing vertically, hovering and flying in different directions.
• The lift and thrust of helicopters are provided by spinning rotors, usually featuring two or more blades.
• Helicopters typically have one main rotor and one smaller rotor in the tail which counters the torque effect, stopping the helicopter from spinning in the opposite direction.
• Some helicopters have two horizontal rotors which spin in opposite directions, allowing the helicopter to lift heavier objects.
• Helicopters have advantages over fixed-wing aircraft that allow them to access hard to reach areas, particularly useful in rescue situations.
• As well as search and rescue, helicopters are useful for tourism, medical transport, fighting fires, aerial photography, military activity and more.
• Helicopters have a number of limitations. They can be noisy, vibrate a lot and aren't as fast as fixed-wing aircraft.
• Vertical flight has existed in some form as far back as 400 BC when children in China played with flying toys made from bamboo which created lift when spun.
• Around 1480 Leonardo da Vinci designed a machine resembling a helicopter which can be described as an ‘aerial screw’.
• The first working helicopter is believed to have been the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, first flown in 1936.
• The fastest speed recorded by a helicopter is around 400 kph (248 mph).
• The longest distance traveled in a helicopter without landing is 3562 km (2213 miles).
• Helicopters can be used to fight fires by carrying tanks or helibuckets filled with water.
• Hovering can be the most difficult skill when flying a helicopter. Constant control is required to offset gusty air created by the helicopter.
• Small quadcopters are popular among researchers, the military and amateur enthusiasts due to their ease of control and affordable construction.
• Helicopters are sometimes called choppers.

4.Submarine Facts For Kids

Check out our fun submarine facts for kids and enjoy learning about their history. Find information on what submarines are used for, how long they can remain submerged, how many crew they typically have, when they were first developed and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to submarines

• Submarines are a special type of watercraft that can operate underwater.
• They are typically large vessels with a high number of crew. Nuclear submarines may have a crew of over 100.
• Submarines are used by the military as part of navy forces, protecting aircraft carriers, performing reconnaissance and carrying out other tasks.
• Submarines are also used in other areas such as marine research, undersea exploration and salvage missions.
• Some submarines can remain submerged for months at a time.
• Submarines typically feature a raised tower which holds radar equipment, the periscope and other systems.
• Submarines use ballast tanks to hold water, allowing them to submerge when necessary.
• Early submersibles were developed in the 1600s before the first known military submarine was built in 1775. Named the ‘Turtle’, it held one person and was controlled underwater independently, the first verified submarine capable of doing so.
• Both sides of the American Civil War built and used submarines.
• The first submarine not propelled by human power was the French vessel named ‘Plongeur’. Launched in 1863, it used compressed air for propulsion.
• Developed in the 1800s, torpedoes became an important part of submarine warfare.
• French writer Jules Verne published ‘20,000 Leagues under the Sea’ in 1870, a popular science fiction novel that boosted interest in submarine design.
• Submarine development and use continued through World War I and II, with German U-boats particularly effective in blocking supply lines to the UK.
• Launched in 1954, the first nuclear powered submarine was the USS Nautilus. Nuclear power allowed submarines to operate at high speeds while staying underwater longer than other forms of propulsion such as diesel-electric.
• Both the United States and Soviet Union maintained significant submarine fleets during the cold war.

5.Bicycle Facts for Kids

Check out our fun bicycle facts for kids and enjoy learning about bikes and cycling history. Find information on different types of bicycles, brakes, pedals, tires, recreational cycling, professional cycling and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to bicycles.

• Bicycles are human powered vehicles, typically featuring pedals, a seat, two wheels and a frame.
• There are over one billion bicycles found throughout the world.
• Bicycles are used for transport, recreation, competitive racing, courier delivery and a range of other tasks.
• Competitive cycling includes track cycling inside velodromes, time trials, mountain biking, BMX and longer events such as the Tour de France.
• The Tour de France was first held in 1903 and his since become the most famous cycling race in the world. Held over three weeks, the annually changing route goes through the Pyrenees and Alps before finishing in Paris.
• Tandem bicycles are made to be ridden by two or more people.
• Although unicycles (one wheel) and tricycles (three wheels) don’t have two wheels, they are sometimes still referred to as ‘bikes’.
• The energy required to cycle at low to medium speeds is roughly the same as the energy required to walk.
• Bicycles typically use a chain to transmit power to the rear wheel.
• To get efficient use of their pedaling, cyclists use a high gear when going downhill, a medium gear on flat surfaces and a low gear when going uphill.
• Different brake types include rim brakes, internal hub brakes and disc brakes.
• Some bicycles feature suspension. This is especially common in mountain bikes where they are used to help deal with the vibration caused by uneven surfaces.
• Road bikes typically have thinner tires inflated to higher pressures than those found on mountain bikes, taking advantage of the smoother surfaces that roads generally provide.
• Before the word ‘bicycle’ become popular (coming from the French word ‘bicyclette’), bikes were typically called ‘velocipedes’.
• Two wheeled transportation developed in the 1800s, from pushed powered bikes through to mechanical crank drives with pedals.
• You may have heard of the Penny-farthing, an early type of bicycle that featured a front wheel significantly larger than the rear. The name comes from the old British Penny and Farthing coins which represent the large and small wheels.
• The pneumatic tire came along in the later years of the 19th century along with the rear freewheel and coaster brakes.
• Cycling became increasing popular in the early stages of the 20th century as cycling clubs and races caught on.

6.Car Facts for Kids

Check out our fun car facts for kids and enjoy learning about the automobile industry. Find information on the history of cars, engines, production lines, fuel types, modern cars, future trends and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to cars.

• The car, automobile, motor car or autocar usually has four-wheels and is a vehicle that uses its own motor engine system to transport passengers over purposely built roads.
• In 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot of France arguably invented the first full-scale, self propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile. It was a steam-powered tricycle.
• In 1807 Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude are believed to have built the world's first internal combustion engine. They called it a Pyréolophore. However, they chose to install it in a boat not a car. That same year a Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz finished his own internal combustion engine and used it to create the world's first internal combustion engine vehicle.
• The Benz Patent-Motorwagen is believed to be the first modern automobile. It was built in 1886 by German inventor Carl Benz.
• In August 1888, Carl Benz's wife, Bertha Benz, became the first person to drive a car over a long distance. Without telling her husband she drove one of their Benz Patent-Motorwagens along with her two eldest sons from a town called Mannheim in southern Germany to Pforzheim. Automobile trips before this were usually short drives, she wanted to prove the automobile they had invented was a useful contraption, that the general public could use.
• Bertha Benz's road trip was a pioneering drive and a key event in the technical development of the car. Covering 106 km (66 miles) each way she did the round trip in two days, solving numerous problems on the way. When the brakes needed repairing she invented brake lining. She used a hatpin to clean a blocked fuel pipe and insulated a wire with a garter. She located fuel at the city pharmacy in Wiesloch (hailed as the first fuel station in the world) and on her return home made other suggestions, such as the need of another gear for climbing hills.
• In 1892, Rudolf Diesel a German engineer invented a "New Rational Combustion Engine" which lead him to building the first Diesel Engine in 1897.
• As automobiles became more popular a need arose to manufacture affordable cars on a large-scale basis. Ransom Olds in 1902, debuted a production-line manufacturing system at his Oldsmobile factory in Michigan, USA.
• Henry Ford's Model T car, introduced in 1908, is often regarded as the most famous of all early automobiles. It was the first car to become publically affordable, especially after Ford massively improved the production-line manufacturing system.
• In 1914, Ford created a production-line system that focused on synchronization, precision, and specialization. Ford's cars came off the line much faster than previous methods (from 12.5 man-hours down to just 1.5), which increased productivity yet used less manpower. By assigning each worker a specified area rather than allowing them to roam about, injuries were dramatically reduced.
• Ford could afford to pay workers more as the number of workers needed decreased. Combined with the high efficiency output a term called "Fordism" was surmised. It lead to most major manufacturing industries adopting the method for various products which contributed to the economic rise of the United States.
• Today, various body styles for the car exist such as the sedan/saloon, hatchback, station wagon/estate and van.
• In 2010 it was estimated that there were over 1 billion vehicles in the world, up from half a billion in 1986. The number of cars on the road continues to increase rapidly year on year especially in developing countries such as India and China.
• Petrol (gasoline) and diesel are still used to fuel the internal combustion engine today. However, both of these fuels cause air pollution and contribute to climate change. With rapidly increasing oil prices and concerns about the environmental impacts there is a lot of work underway to produce viable future alternative power systems for cars. Hybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles, hydrogen vehicles and vehicles using alternative fuels such as natural gas are gaining popularity.
• Fully autonomous vehicles (driverless cars) currently exist in prototype (Google has developed a driverless car). These cars are expected to be available commercially around the year 2020. Autonomous cars could help to reduce the amount of vehicles needed on the road and dramatically increase safety.

7.Hot Air Balloon Facts for Kids

Check out our hot air balloon facts for kids and enjoy learning about how they work.

Find information on how high they can fly, what kind of fuel they burn, where popular balloon festivals are held and much more. Read on for a wide range of fun trivia and information related to hot air balloons.

• The first human carrying flight technology was the hot air balloon.
• While unmanned balloons have been around in some form for thousands of years, the first untethered flight with people on board was in 1782.
• The large balloon on top is called an ‘envelope’. It holds hot air created by a heat source known as a burner.
• The burner creates an open flame by burning a mix of liquid propane and air.
• Hot air balloons are buoyant because the hot air inside the envelope has a lower density than the colder air outside.
• Passengers typically stand in a wicker basket beneath the envelope.
• While most envelopes have a standard balloon shape, others are designed to look like animals, cartoon characters and other fun objects.
• The top of the balloon usually has a vent which allows the pilot to control the speed of ascent/descent (along with the burner).
• Hot air balloons can fly to amazing heights, the world record is over 21,000 metres! (68,900 feet). It’s tough to breathe up there so oxygen is needed from around 5,000 metres (16,400 feet).
• The temperature inside a hot air balloon is usually kept below 120 degrees Celsius (248 Fahrenheit).
• A typical envelope is made from nylon with a melting point around 230 degrees Celsius (446 Fahrenheit).
• Hot air balloon flights and festivals are popular in various destinations around the world. Well known locations include Cappadocia (Turkey), Albuquerque (New Mexico, USA), Luxor (Egypt) and the Serengeti (Tanzania).

8.Train Facts for Kids

Check out our fun train facts for kids and enjoy learning about their history and how they work. Find information on steam trains, cargo trains, locomotives, high speed railways, new technologies and much more. Read on for a wide range of interesting trivia and information related to trains.

• Trains are built to transport passengers or cargo along rail tracks.
• There are all kinds of different trains that are built for a range of purposes and environments.
• Trains can be powered by a variety of energy sources including steam, diesel andelectricity.
• Early trains relied on ropes, horses or gravity.
• The use of steam locomotives developed through the 19th century before diesel and electric locomotives began to replace them in the 20th century.
• Cargo trains are typically powered by a locomotive which pulls from the front.
• Some trains have a second locomotive which helps by pushing from the back.
• Passenger trains often feature self-propelled carriages (multiple units) that can be joined with other units. Trains such as these are more energy efficient but may require more maintenance than a single locomotive vehicle.
• Some high speed rail services can reach speeds over 300 kph (186 mph).
• In operation since 1964, Japan’s Shinkansen (bullet train) is a well known example of a high speed passenger rail system.
• Opened in 1994, the Channel Tunnel carries passengers between the UK andFrance on a high speed railway.
• Technologies such as magnetic levitation may provide faster, more efficient train travel in the future. Magnetic levitation propels trains forward using magnets, keeping the vehicle levitated but close to the track.
• Monorails feature a single rail and are often elevated above ground.
• Funicular (or venicular) railways feature two cars/trams attached by cables that counterbalance each other as they move up and down a steep slope.
• There are many train enthusiasts around the world interested in everything from rail history to famous train journeys, model trains, railway photography and other hobbies related to railways.
• You may have heard of Thomas the Tank Engine, a popular character from British television and literature. Thomas is a small steam locomotive who starred in the children’s television series with a variety of other railway friends.